Supporters of Richard II planned to attack King Henry IV during a tournament held over Christmas at Windsor Castle. The plot was betrayed by Edward, Earl of Rutland, son of the Duke of York. Henry and his family escaped to London, and by the time the King returned to Windsor with an army, the rebels had been dealt with by local people.

To stop the Scots raiding the northern borders of England, Henry took an army into Scotland. The Scottish king Robert III did not concede defeat and Henry had to resort to minor raids of his own without any real outcome for either side.

What started as a land dispute between Owain Glyndwr, a wealthy land owner in Wales and his rival Lord Grey of Rutin quickly escalated into a revolt when the English King Henry IV sided with Rutin and awarded him the land.

Owain Glyndwr's revolt spread and he proclaimed himself the Prince of Wales. He was joined by the Tudor brothers from Anglesey and began guerrilla warfare against the English in the North of Wales and the Marcher Lords in the centre.

King Henry IV moved into North Wales to try and stop the rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, but he was not able to deal with the Welsh rebels, who were more skilled at fighting in the terrain.

King Henry IV gave his son Prince Henry, the future Henry V, the task of defeating Owain Glyndwr in North Wales. As the boy was only 13 years old, Hotspur a knight and jouster of importance was given the role of guardian over the Prince. Hotspur was the son of Henry Percy the Earl of Northumberland.

After accusing the king of not paying his army, Hotspur resigned his guardianship of the king's son in North Wales and he left to resume fighting the Scots.

The king assembled an army at Shrewsbury Castle in preparation to fight Owain Glyndwr.

Edmund Mortimer's army met Owain Glyndwr at Pilleth near Whitton in central Wales. Mortimer's army was badly defeated and Mortimer was captured. Glyndwr offered to release Mortimer for a large ransom, but Henry IV refused to pay.

The armies of the Percies and the Scots met at Homildon Hill near Wooler in Northumberland. The Scots were defeated and the Scots' leader the Earl of Douglas was captured. Henry IV wanted Douglas handed over but Hotspur refused. Hotspur was angry with the English king who had refused to pay a ransom for Edmund Mortimer who had been captured by Owain Glyndwr and who was a friend of Hotspur's.

The Percies, led by the Earl of Northumberland and Hotspur announced their intent to revolt against Henry IV. They even promised to free the Scots they had captured at the battle of Homildon if the Scots assisted in the revolt. The plan was to join forces with Owain Glyndwr and support the claim of the young Edmund Mortimer 5th Earl of March to the English throne.

The castle at Abergavenny was attacked and burnt by Owain Glyndwr.

The Norman Llansteffan Castle was attacked by Owain Glyndwr. Glyndwr may have held the castle for a short time until it was retaken by Sir John Penress (Pennes).

Owain Glyndwr's forces attacked Kidwelly Castle managing to set fire to the unfinished gatehouse but did not capture the castle.

Owain Glyndwr attacked and badly damaged Weobley Castle.

Prince Henry, now sixteen, took control of this army in Wales. He took his troops looking for Owain Owain Glyndwr but could not find him and so burnt villages and killed any prisoners that were taken. Henry's main problem, like Hotspur's before him was that the King was not providing enough money to pay the English troops.

Henry IV managed to reach Shrewsbury just before Hotspur arrived and the rebel army had to camp outside the town to the north. The battle lasted all day but it ended when Hotspur was killed.

Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland (Hotspur's father) had not managed to reach Shrewsbury in time to save his son. The Earl surrendered to the King, who accepted and showed the Earl mercy.

The Welsh captured Harlech Castle and the fortress became the base for Owain Glyndwr's revolt.

Owain Glyndwr attacked and captured the town of Cardiff and its castle.

Owain Glyndwr captured the town of Aberystwyth and its castle after a lengthy blockade.

Bangor Cathedral was captured by Owain Glyndwr after a siege and destroyed by fire.

Owain Glyndwr called a Parliament where he declared himself to be the true 'Prince of Wales'. Embassies from France and Scotland attended the meeting and gave promises to support Glyndwr's plans to overthrow Henry IV.

Owain Glyndwr, Edmund Mortimer and the Earl of Northumberland combine forces and share the same goal of removing Henry IV. They agreed to divide England and Wales in three, Owain taking Wales and the west of England, the Earl to take the north of England and the north Midlands. Mortimer could have the rest.

English forces fought and defeated Welsh forces in two battles at Grosmont and Usk. Sir John Talbot defeated Owain Glyndwr at Grosmont and Prince Henry forced the Welsh to flee at Usk. Glyndwr's eldest son was captured at Usk and sent to the Tower of London where he died.

Richard Scrope colluded with the Earl of Northumberland to overthrow Henry IV. Scrope was the Archbishop of York.

The Archbishop's revolt was crushed with the aid of the Nevilles and the king had him executed.

Robert III of Scotland had fled from the Duke of Albany to Rothesay Castle and had attempted to send his son James to France. English pirates intercepted James and he was sent to London and imprisoned.

Prince Henry laid siege to the castle at Aberystwyth in an attempt to remove the Welsh who had captured it in 1404.

The English besiege the Welsh in Harlech Castle.

The end of the Percy's revolt came at the battle of Bramham Moor where the Earl of Northumberland was killed by the Sheriff of Yorkshire.

The Welsh surrender the castle at Aberyswyth. They had held out for a year. Prince Henry had tried destroying the castle with canons but had no success.

The Welsh in Harlech Castle surrender to the English and the revolt of Welsh comes to an end. Edmund Mortimer was killed.

Alien priories were those in England who were dependant on usually French mother houses. During the Hundred Years War these priories were seen as a security risk. They also were a means of transferring much needed English money to France. A law was passed confiscating these priories. Many were transferred over to other religious orders.

A meeting of the Lollards was stormed by the King's troops and many were arrested and subsequently put to death. Their leader, Sir John Oldcastle, managed to escape capture.

Parliament agreed to give Henry V the money to invade France. Those that opposed the plans included Earl Marshal, Ralph Neville, who believed there was a better chance of subduing Scotland than France.

In 1414 France was in the midst of a civil war between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. While Charles VI, the French king, had joined the Armagnacs, Henry V, the English King, saw an opportunity to reclaim lost lands in France and came in on the side of the Burgundians. Henry's plan was to invade France but he needed a good reason. He gave the French king a list of demands including the French throne, the restoration of the Angevin empire and the hand of the French king's daughter in marriage. If the demands were not be met Henry would go to war. Henry could claim the French throne through a claim first made by his great-grandfather King Edward III that started the Hundred Years War.||In August of 1415, invasion plans were completed and Henry's army met at Portchester Castle where they boarded ships to take them across the English Channel to France.

As negotiations were underway in France, England was preparing for the invasion of France.

Led by Richard Earl of Cambridge, Henry's cousin, a plot to assassinate the King and replace him with the Earl of March who was the true heir to the throne was hatched. The revolt brought together all the old enemies of Henry including Lord Scrope (Archbishop Scrope's nephew) and the Lollards. The Earl of March whose loyalties were with the king informed Henry of the plot the night before and the rebels were arrested. Several were executed.

Preparations for war were complete and Henry's army set sail from Southampton for the French coast.

Henry's army landed on the north bank of the Seine estuary near to the town of Harfleur (now part of Le Havre). Henry organised the siege of the town and waited for it to fall.

The town held out for five weeks in which time the English soldiers were starting to suffer from disease caught from their camps in the marshes. The people in the town were not doing much better and when it was clear that the town was not going to be rescued, the citizens surrendered. Henry treated the towns people with respect and let them leave.

Henry's plans for invading France had been dented by the time it took to capture Harfleur and the affect of disease on his men. He decided to move his men to Calais which was under English control.

Henry's plan was to get across the Somme at its estuary where it was relatively easy to cross but he received word that the crossing was being guarded by the French. Henry had no other choice but to follow the west bank of the Somme south into French territory to find a suitable crossing point. His men were short of food as Henry had told them to take only a few day's supplies expecting them to reach Calais. Henry finally found a crossing point that was unguarded and his army crossed the Somme.

The English army met the French army near the town of Agincourt. Although the English were outnumbered three to one, Henry used the local terrain to his advantage. The French cavalry were hit heavily by the English archers and French knights got bogged down in the wet fields. The French were defeated and Henry ordered that no prisoners should be taken apart from the extremely important knights who could be ransomed. The death toll amongst the French nobility was high.

After a few weeks recovering in Calais from their ordeal, Henry and the English army returned to England to a hero's welcome.

A French fleet laid siege to Harfleur, the French port captured by Henry V, and attempted to get it back. Harfleur was defended by Thomas Beaufort, the earl of Exeter.

An English fleet commanded by John Duke of Bedford attacked and defeated the French blockading the mouth of the Seine who were preventing supplies reaching the English held town of Harfleur. Bedford was the king's brother.

King Henry began his second French campaign when he and his large army landed at Trouville on the north coast of Normandy.

Once in France, King Henry appointed his brother the Duke of Clarence as Marshall of his army and together they advanced and laid siege to the city of Caen. Henry's attempt to storm and breach the walls failed, but his brother's attack on the other side of the walled city succeeded and the city fell to the English. It took several more days for the fortified castle within the city to be captured.

Sir John Oldcastle executed.

The Burgundians with the help from the citizens of Paris rose up against the Armagnacs who contolled Paris, led by Bernard of Armagnac, the Constable of France. He and many of his followers were killed. John the Fearless, the leader of the Burgundians moved into Paris.

King Henry was not troubled by any Burgundian attempts to stop his progress and by the end of July had begun the siege of the important city of Rouen.

By December so many people in the besiged city of Rouen were starving that as many as 12,000 people were forced to leave. But King Henry refused to let them pass through the his lines and they remained stuck between the English and the walls of the city without food in the freezing weather. Many of them died.

The city of Rouen in Normandy surrendered to the English King after a siege of seven months.

In the Treaty of Troyes King Charles VI of France agreed that after his death King Henry V of England and his heirs would become the rulers of France. It was also agreed that the French king's daughter, Catherine of Valois would marry Henry.

King Henry began the siege of the city of Meaux.

The French town of Meaux finally fell to the English besiegers. This being Henry's last great victory against the French.

English defeat the French at Cravant

The English defeat the French at Verneuil

The Bretons had captured Pontorson, a town on the north-west coast of France. The Earl of Warwick laid siege to the town.

The Duke of Bedford led an English army to surround the French town of Orléans and to begin the siege. Orléans was chosen because it was the most important city still under the control of Charles VII. The city was well prepared for the siege and even though the there were a small number of French soldiers in the city the defences held. Thomas Montacute, earl of Salisbury, was killed when he was hit by debris of an exploding cannonball. The siege continued into the harsh winter. The death of the Thomas Montacute meant that the Earl's title was transferred to Richard Neville who had married his daughter Anne.

To supply the English who were besieging Orléans the Duke of Bedford arranged for a convoy of food be sent. The convoy was attacked by the French but the English managed to fight them off. After the battle the battlefield was covered with the food which was mostly salted fish.

Charles gave Joan a small army and she sets of to free Orleans from the English.

Joan reached Orleans and managed to get past the English to enter the town. There she raised the moral of the citizens trapped by the English siege.

Joan of Arc had tried to negotiate with the English to lift the siege of Orleans without success. More French troops had arrived to assist break the blockade. On May 7th, Joan was wounded by an arrow in the neck but survived and managed to lead the French to defeat the English at Les Tourelles, part of the town. On May 8th the English moved out of Orleans.

The French defeat the English.

Joan was burnt at the stake in Rouen in the Old Market Square.

The English lost the support of the Duke of Burgundy against King Charles VII of France with the signing of the Treaty of Arras where the Duke recognised Charles as the true King of France.

The long occupation of Paris by the English was ended when the French rescued the city.

Construction of the brick tower at Tattershall took place around this time.

Construction of the brick Herstmonceux castle took place around this time.

The English under the command of Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, captured the port town of Harfleur on the northern coast of France.

Caister Castle, in Norfolk just north of Great Yarmouth, was built around this time by Sir Jon Fastolf. Casiter is one of the first brick built castles in England.

One of the several gates built around London was the Postern Gate at the Tower of London. Around this time the gate collapsed into the moat and it was never rebuilt.

Richard, Duke of York was re-appointed lieutenant-general of France and Normandy.

Although Richard, Duke of York, had been appointed governor of France and Normandy he did not go until reports from Rouen in Normandy of French attacks persuaded him to do so.

The English who were under siege inside Calais were resupplied by Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. For his actions Beaufort received the title Earl of Dorset.

The rulers of Europe intervened when they saw that the ongoing war between England and France was doing destructive damage to both countries. Delegates including Cardinal Beauforta and the Earl of Suffolk from England met delegates from France to discuss a peace treaty. It wasn't until the followg year that the treaty was signed. The Treaty of Tours was signed by King Henry VI of England and Charles VII of France. The treaty resulted in five years of peace between the two countries and included the arrangement of marriage between Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou.

A French Embassy arrived in London to meet the English King and confirm terms of a peace treaty after the marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou.

The position of lieutenant of France was contested by Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Richard, Duke of York. Richard wanted to be re-appointed to the position but the Duke of Somerset was appointed instead. Edmund and Richard would become bitter rivals in the future battles of the Wars of the Roses.

Richard, Duke of York, had previously been the Lieutenant of France and Normandy but this had expired and the title had gone to his rival Edmund Beaufort (later Duke of Somerset). Instead, Richard was appointed the title of Lieutenant of Ireland.

Several years after the Treaty of Arras, after which the conflict between England and France had subdued, an English force attacked and took over the town of Fougeres in Brittany. This sparked the resumption of the war between the two countries.

Several French armies moved into Normandy to retake it from the English. The English garrisons began to surrender under the pressure.

A large army of French soldiers were able to retake the cities in Normandy that had been captured by the English. Rouen, the last to fall, was retaken in November after a siege of almost three weeks. This was a major victory for Charles, the French king and a disaster for Henry VI.

Adam Moleyns, the Bishop of Chichester and Lord Privy Seal, had been sent to Portsmouth by the king to pay the wages of soldiers and sailors who had not been paid for some time. But the anger of the soldiers was so great that they turned on him and he was murdered.

An English army landed at Cherbourg under the command of Sir Thomas Kyriel. Joined by forces led by Matthew Gough the combined army laid siege to Valognes. The town fell to the English in April.

An English army under the command of Sir Thomas Kyriel and Matthew Gough were attacked at Formigny in Normandy. The English were defeated and many of them were captured including Kyriel. Matthew Gough managed to escape.

Jack Cade was the leader of a rebellion that began in Kent and elsewhere in the south east of England. The rebels' grievances were directed at King Henry's councillors who were using their influence on the king for their own gains.

William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk was accused by Parliament of being the cause of the country's problems. Suffolk was arrested and imprisoned. The king allowed the Duke to be banished rather than executed but as he left the country he was attacked and killed.

English forces led by Matthew Gough held out at Bayeux against a French siege. The French used powerful cannons and finally Gough agreed to surrender the town to the French.

The rebels under the command of Jack Cade defeated a section of King Henry's army at Sevenoaks and entered London. The rebels ransacked the city and after crossing London Bridge to the south were prevented crossing back to the north by angry Londoners. The rebels were defeated and fled.

On his return from Normandy Matthew Gough was made Captain of the Tower of London. Gough was killed in the fighting with Jack Cade and the rebels on London Bridge soon afterwards.

After the defeat of the rebels in London Jack Cade fled but was pursued. He was caught and killed while resisting arrest.

The Duke of Somerset surrendered the town of Caen to the French after a short siege and he returned to England.

The lands in Normandy held by the English began to fall to the French one-by-one until Cherbourg finally fell on August 12th.

The port city of Bordeaux fell to the French and English control was lost.

The Duke of York gathered an army and marched on London intent on persuading King Henry to remove Somerset from power. The king took an army north to Northampton to prevent Yorkist supporters in the east joining York in the west. The king also sent word to the city of London to not allow York to enter. Learning that he was refused entry to the city, the Duke of York continued south and crossed the the River Thames at Kingston. York moved his army to Dartford while King Henry came back south to London.

Queen Margaret had raised an army and with the King they confronted the Duke of York at Dartford. Outnumbered, York disbanded his army and surrendered. He was taken to London and later at St. Paul's Cathedral was forced to swear an oath saying he would not oppose King Henry.

The Fall of Constantinople came after a seige of some fifty days.

Sir John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury and his army were totally destroyed by the French as they attempted to regain control of the region around Bordeaux. This is regarded as the last event in the Hundred Years War.

Under the command of the Duke of Shrewsbury, an English army was able to take back some of the lost ground in Gascony. But the successes would be short-lived.

King Henry VI had by his side at St. Albans the Dukes of Somerset and Buckingham, Lords Pembroke, Northumberland and Devon and around 2,000 Lancastrian men. They tried to hold the town against the Yorkists led by Salisbury and Warwick but Warwick was able to enter the town through an unguarded spot and attack the flanks of the Lancastrian barricades. Although this battle was small it left the Duke of Somerset dead along with Lord Northumberland and Clifford. As a result of this victory power again swung to the Yorkists although support from the Barons was not total. Richard, Duke of York, again became Protector of the Realm and the powerful position of Captain of Calais was given to the Earl of Warwick.

A Parliament was held after the Battle of St. Albans to confirm the changes of appointment. Richard, Duke of York became protector for the second time.

Edmund Tudor Earl of Richmond was captured at Carmarthen Castle after a siege by men under the control of Sir Wiliiam Herbert.

Edmund the Earl of Richmond died in captivity in Carmarthen Castle. His thirteen year old bride Margaret was expecting their child who would become the future King Henry VII.

After the death of Edmund Tudor, his brother, Jasper Tudor Earl of Pembroke, moved Margaret Beaufort to Pembroke Castle. Margaret was the wife of Edmund Tudor and expecting their first child, Henry Tudor, the future King of England.

The coastal town of Sandwich on the south coast of England was raided by the French. The town was left burning and the mayor dead,

England's naval power was weak and the waters between France and England were filled with pirates. Sandwich had been attacked by the French the year before. To put an end to this problem, the Earl of Warwick, the Captain of Calais, commanded a fleet of ships to patrol the English Channel. His fleet attacked and captured Spanish and Genoese ships talking prisoners and treasure. This made the Earl popular with the sailors under his command and the traders who the pirates had previously attacked.

In an attempt to bring both Yorkists and Lancastrians together in peace, King Henry VI led a march of both parties to a ceremony at St. Paul's Cathedral.

At a Parliament called in Coventry the Yorkists are condemned as rebels and their land was confiscated by the crown.

The Lancastrians were building a large fleet of ships at Sandwich on the south coast and with it they planned to attack Calais. The Earl of Warwick became aware of this and arranged a raid led by John Dinham to steal the ships. Early in the morning of the fifteenth of January the Yorkists supporters attacked the dockyard and stole those ships that were seaworthy. Richard Woodville (Earl Rivers), his wife Jacquetta and their son Anthony were captured.

With the Yorkists in control of the seas around the south coast of England, the Earl of Warwick was able to leave Calais and sail to Ireland where the Duke of York had taken refuge. There they planned their invasion of England and the defeat of the Lancastrians.

With plans of invasion made the Earl of Warwick sailed back to Calais to organise his army.

Yorkists from Calais landed on the south coast of England and quickly seized Sandwich. They prepared for the arrival of the Earl of Warwick and the Earl of March.

After the Lancastrian defeat at Northampton, Queen Margaret and her son Edward escaped to Wales and the safety of Harlech Castle.

Once the Yorkist army had secured Sandwich the Earls of March and Warwick arrived from Calais. They had a force of around 2,000 and the support of the Kentish men.

The Yorkists marched first to Canterbury where the officers in charge of protecting the town against them joined forces with the rebels. They then moved on and arrived at London on July 2nd. There they were welcomed by the Mayor of London and the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Accompanied by a large army of Yorkist supporters, the Earl of Warwick and Edward, the Earl of March left London and marched towards Northampton where the King was staying.

The Lancastrians's Court was in Coventry at the time of the Yorkist rebels entering London. When news reached them, the Lancastrians moved south to Northampton to meet the rebels. The Yorkists led by the Earl of Warwick wanted to talk but the Lancastrians led by the Duke of Buckingham wanted to fight. Although the Lancastrians had less men than the Yorkists, they did have control of a stronger position. The Yorkists managed to defeat the Lancastrians due to a section of the Lancastrian army led by Lord Grey of Ruthin moving away allowing the Yorkists through. Orders were given that the King and ordinary men should be spared, while the knights and lords should be killed. When the fighting was over the casualties were light, but the Lancastrian leaders, Buckingham, Shrewsbury and Egremont were dead and the King was captured.

The Lancastrian garrison holding the Tower of London surrendered. Lord Scrope tried to escape but was seen and killed by the river, but most of the garrison escaped.

Whilst besieging Roxburgh Castle, James II, King of the Scots was killed by one of his own army's bombards. He was succeeded to the throne by his son James III.

Richard, Duke of York returned from Ireland arriving somewhere near Chester.

Queen Margaret had been building an army in the North and started attacking Yorkist held settlements. Richard left London with a small army to deal with the Queen. He had underestimated the Lancastrians and at his castle at Sandal Richard was confronted by superior forces. Although Richard sent word to the Earl of March for assistance he didn't wait and attacked. The battle left Richard Duke of York and his son Earl of Rutland dead.

Edward Earl of March, now the heir to the English throne, showed off his military skills at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in Herefordshire. The Lancastrians with Welsh support had caught Edward as he travelled to London. On the morning of the battle three bright lights were seen in the sky. Edward used this strange sight as a good omen. The Lancastrians were defeated and Owen Tudor was captured and beheaded. Jasper Tudor escaped.

The Lancastrians army led by the Queen met the Yorkist army led by Warwick at St. Albans. The Yorkist army was split in two and during the battle sections of the Yorkists defected to the Queen's side. The Yorkists were defeated and Warwick escaped. The King, who had been travelling with the Yorkists, was freed and he was reunited with his wife and son.

Edward and Warwick were allowed to enter the city of London. The citizens of London had refused to let the Queen enter and so she returned north with the King.

Edward IV with a large army left London to march north and face the Lancastrians. Richard and George, the young sons of the late Duke of York were put on a ship and sent to Burgundy where they would be safe from Lancastrian hands.

This small battle occurred just before the larger battle of Towton. The Lancastrians were defeated and John Clifford, Lord Clifford was killed.

The Battle of Towton was the bloodiest battle of the Wars of the Roses and was fought in a snowstorm at Towton in Yorkshire. Both the Lancastrian and Yorkist armies were large having possibly 40,000 men each. The battle lasted many hours until the Lancastrians's line was broken. Fleeing into a river many of the Lancastrians were drowned due to their heavy armour and the rest were killed by the pursuing Yorkists.

An embassy of several Lancastrians, including the Duke of Somerset, travelled to France and the court of Charles VII to ask for men and a loan of money to continue the fight against the Yorkists. But the death of Charles on the 22nd put an end to their plans. Their situation became serious when they were arrested. The new French King, Louis XI, at this stage of the Wars of the Roses was a Yorkist supporter.

Pembroke Castle was captured by William Herbert. The young Henry Tudor was found in the castle where he had been hiding.

William Herbert was given the castle at Pembroke in recognition of his assistance to Edward IV. Herbert was made the guardian of the future Henry VII who was living at the castle.

Both Prudhoe Castle and Warkworth Castle were granted by King Edward IV to his brother George Duke of Clarence.

Carreg Cennen Castle was captured from the Lancastrians by the Yorkists. To prevent it from being used as a castle again 500 men were employed to take it apart. The castle has remained a ruin ever since.

A Lancastrian plot to kill King Edward IV was uncovered early in the year. Edward was planning to go north to deal with the Scots and the plotters planned to follow him north and kill him. One of the leaders was the 12th Earl of Oxford, John de Vere. Both the Earl and his eldest son where executed for treason.

In an attempt to raise support for the Lancastrian cause, Queen Margaret sailed from Scotland to Brittany. She hoped she could get support from the French King, Louis XI.

Queen Margaret of England and Louis XI of France signed a treaty. Margaret promised that Calais would be returned to the French if he helped her return her husband King Henry VI of England to the throne.

Queen Margaret landed near Bamburgh Castle on the Northumbrian coast with a small army. The main castles in the area, Alnwick, Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh surrendered to the Queen.

Edward acted quickly to Queen Margaret's arrival in the north. He raised a large army that marched towards Northumbria. Queen Margaret did not have the resources and local support required to fight Edward and so she decided to seek refuge in Scotland. A garrison of soldiers were left at the three Northumbrian castles.

The Earl of Warwick was put in charge of capturing the castles from the Lancastrian garrisons. Edward had to stay at Durham to recover from a bout of the measles. The castles were not attacked but cut off from supplies to starve the soldiers out. Just before the new year the Lancastrian soldiers surrendered and the Yorkists took control of Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh Castles. Warwick used the castle at Warkworth as his base while he monitored the sieges at the other castles. The seige of Alnwick Castle continued into January.

The Lancastrians inside Alnwick Castle were short of supplies so an army from Scotland under the control of George Douglas, the 4th Earl of Angus marched down to assist. When the Scottish army arrived at the castle, the Yorkists who were beseiging the castle withdrew allowing many of those inside to escape. Douglas did not attack the Yorkists but turned with the rescued men back to Scotland. The Yorkists returned to the castle and those Lancastrians that had not been able to escape surrendered.

Sir Ralph Percy, the constable in charge of Bamburgh and Dunstanburgh castles, defected and allowed the Lancastrians to take control. Alnwick Castle fell to the Lancastrians shortly afterwards.

Alnwick Castle was captured by the Lancastrians.

Warwick took an army north to deal with the new threat from Queen Margaret. The Lancastrians had laid siege to Norham Castle on the Scottish border. Under the control of the Earl of Warwick, the Yorkists again proved too powerful for the Lancastrians and with her invasion plans in ruin Margaret decided to return to France. She took Prince Edward with her.

Queen Margaret and King Henry VI with Scottish support besieged the castle at Norham. King Edward failed to react to the problem and it was left to the Earls of Warwick and Northumberland to come to the castle's rescue. King Henry, Margaret and the Scots fled.

King Edward IV agreed a peace treaty with France in which both sides promising not to assist each others enemies. This was a disaster for the Lancastrians who had hoped that they could get French assistance against the English king.

Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Lancastrian supporters rebelled against Edward and used Bamburgh Castle as a base.

Edward IV agreed a truce with Scotland who had lost interest in fighting for the Lancastrians and Queen Margaret. The truce was signed at York and Edward spent Christmas in the city.

The Battle of Hedgeley Moor took place a few miles from Alnwick. Lord Montague was attempting to meet Scottish envoys and escort then back to York for peace talks. The Lancastrians wanted to put an end to these plans and attacked Montague's army. Lancastrians involved in the battle were Somerset, Roos, Hungerford, , Sir Ralph Percy, Sir Richard Tunstall and Sir Thomas Finderne. Percy was killed in the battle. The Yorkist army was too strong for the Lancastrians and won the day.

The Nevilles defeated the last of the Lancastrian forces near Hexham and executed the rebels including Henry Beaufort the Duke of Somerset. In recognition of their contribution to the security of his reign Edward IV gave John Neville, Lord Montague, the title of Earl of Northumberland and George Neville became the Archbishop of York.

Anglo-Scots truce signed at York.

William Herbert was given the title of Constable of Harlech Castle by Edward IV and told to capture the castle from the Lancatrians. But the castle was strongly fortified and a lengthy siege began.

After the Lancastrians were defeated at the Battle of Hexham their power in Northumberland was at an end. The Earl of Warwick accepted the surrender of Alnwick Castle on June the 23rd. Dunstanburgh Castle surrendered shortly afterwards. The siege at Bamburgh Castle was brought to an end with the use of cannons, the first castle to fall in such a way.

Henry had been helped by Lancastrian supporters in the north but was finally captured at Waddington Hall. He was taken to London and put in the Tower.

King Louis XI of France provided Jasper Tudor, the Earl of Pembroke, with three ships and fifty soldiers to invade Wales. The small invasion force planned to gain support against Edward IV and help the Lancastrian garrison trapped at Harlech Castle. The castle was surrounded by the English so Pembroke attacked and occupied Denbigh gaining many supporters. Lord Herbert was dispatched to deal with the threat and defeated Pembroke who managed to escape.

Warwick was unhappy with the marriage of Edward and Elizabeth Woodville and he began to plan how overthrow the king. Warwick's plans centred around Edward's brother George, the Duke of Clarence. If George was to marry Warwick's daughter Isabel and become king, Warwick would be back in a position of power.

A rebellion began early in the year started by a mysterious person calling himself Robin of Redesdale. The motivation for the uprising against the king was his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and the influence the Woodvilles were having. The rebels were supported by the Earl of Warwick.

Edward and the Duke of Gloucester took a small army in search of the rebels in the North.

Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick returned from France to England with an army, passing through Canterbury and London. His plan was to take the army north and join up with the Rebels led by Robin of Redesdale.

Edward's army was insufficient to deal with the rebels alone and he had moved them to Nottingham to wait for a larger army to join them led by Sir William Herbert, the Earl of Pembroke. Pembroke's army was attacked and defeated by a combined rebel army led by Robin of Redesdale and the Earl of Warwick who had returned from France. The battle took place at Edgecote near Banbury. Sir William Herbert and his brother Richard were captured and executed.

After the defeat of William Herbert at Edgecote, Edward was left without a strong enough army to deal with the Earl of Warwick. Either Edward's army deserted him, or he dispersed his army on purpose, but the outcome was the same; Edward was captured and taken to Middleham Castle as a prisoner.

While Edward was imprisoned, Warwick captured the Queen's father (Earl Rivers) and one of her brothers and had them executed at Warwick Castle.

With the king in custody there began a series of riots around the country protesting against the Earl of Warwick. Warwick did not have the backing of Parliament and in the end had little choice but to let Edward go free and return to rule the country.

A rebellion had begun in Lincolnshire early in the year and had been mostly been dealt with by Edward, but Sir Robert (Welles ?) had escaped capture and was still on the run. Edward finally caught up with Sir Robert near Stamford in Lincolnshire. In the battle known as Empingham (or Lose-Coat), Sir Robert was captured and confessed that the rebellion had been master-minded by the Earl of Warwick and the Duke of Clarence.

After their treachery had been uncovered, the Earl of Warwick and Duke of Clarence fled to France. Warwick's plan was to get help from the French King. They took a ship with their immediate relatives and followers from either Exeter or Dartmouth. Isabella, Warwick's daughter, gave birth on the ship to a son, but he died shortly afterwards. When they reached Calais, the deputy-governor, John Lord Wenlock, refused them entry to the harbour and fired his guns at them.

Louis XI, the French King devised a plan to remove Edward IV from the English throne. Louis persuaded the Yorkist Earl of Warwick and Margaret of Anjou the exiled wife of Henry VI, a Lancastrian, to combine forces and attempt to over through Edward. Warwick and Margaret met on 22 July at Anger Cathedral to put their differences aside and to agree on a course of action.

The Earl of Warwick promised to restore Henry VI to the English throne, and he betrothed his youngest daughter Anne to Margaret's son Edward, the Prince of Wales.

With an army and over fifty ships provided by King Louis, the Earl of Warwick set sail from France to England.

The Earl of Warwick landed at Dartmouth in Devon accompanied by the Lancastrian Earl of Oxford and Jasper Tudor, the half-brother of Henry VI. Edward was in the north at the time of Warwick's return and was turned upon by John Neville, Warwick's brother. Although John Neville had accepted Edward as King, Edward had removed John's title of Earl of Northumberland earlier in the year and given it to the Percys. John Neville advanced on Edward's position with a force much larger.

Warwick did not need to fight the King. Edward was outnumbered and was almost captured by John Neville at Doncaster. Along with his brother Richard and a small party of followers, Edward travelled to Lynn in Norfolk where he sailed to Burgundy and refuge.

King Edward IV had taken refuge with his brother-in-law Charles, the Duke of Burgundy. Louis of France declared war on Burgundy forcing the Duke to support Edward in his attempt to reclaim the English throne.

The marriage between Edward of Lancaster, the son of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou, to Anne Neville, the daughter of Richard Neville the Kingmaker was a marriage to cement the agreement that Richard and Margaret would support each other and try to get Henry VI back on the English throne. The marriage took place in France at the Chateau d'Amboise where Margaret and Edward were exiled.

King Edward IV and Charles of Burgundy met at Aire where an agreement was reached on support for Edward's return to the English throne.

With a small combined force of English and Burgundians, Edward landed on the Yorkshire coast. His fleet had been hit and scattered by a storm off the coast of Norfolk. Luckily for Edward he wasn't attacked even though Lord Montague, the Earl of Northumberland, was close by. As he marched south, Edward gained supporters and his army grew.

George, Duke of Clarence deserted the Earl of Warwick and joined his brothers Edward and Richard. Importantly for the Yorkist cause, he brought with him a sizable army.

The Earl of Warwick was in Coventry and apparently unwilling to confront Edward, so Edward and Richard marched south to London. London was under the control of Warwick's brother, George Neville the Archbishop of York, but the Londoners were Yorkists and they welcomed the return of their true king. Once inside the city Edward had the Archbishop arrested and along with King Henry VI put in the Tower of London.

The Earl of Warwick had left Coventry to confront Edward. The armies met at Barnet just north of London in thick fog. The two battle lines overlapped and Warwick's Lancastrian men commanded by the Earl of Oxford were able to get around the Yorkists commanded by Lord Hastings. Hastings' men fled back to London with Oxford's men in hot pursuit. On the other side of the battle the Yorkists, led by Richard, were outflanking the Lancastrians and took the advantage pushing their enemy back. When Oxford's men returned to the battle they were mistakenly fired upon by their fellow Lancastrians and fled. By early evening Lord Montague and the Earl of Warwick were dead. The Lancastrians were defeated.

Queen Margaret (wife of Henry VI) and her son Edward the prince of Wales landed at Weymouth on the very same day as the battle of Barnet. Their intention was to assist the Earl of Warwick, but she arrived too late. Determined to avenge the Barnet defeat, the Queen and her army marched north towards Wales and men she could count on to join her army. Edward had thought of this and to cut the Queen off from Wales, had taken control of the bridges across the River Severn.

A group of men from Kent attacked London but left the city before the victorious Edward returned after the battle of Tewkesbury.

The Yorkists led by King Edward IV and his brother Richard Duke of Gloucester met the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury. Richard was able to outflank the Lancastrians led by Edmund Beaufort, the self-proclaimed Duke of Somerset. Once Somerset's men had been dealt with, Richard attacked the rear of the Lancastrian line which broke apart and fled. Many of the Lancastrian leaders were caught and killed including Edward the Prince of Wales. Margaret of Anjou, the wife of King Henry VI, was also captured.

Edward, the Earl of March arrived back in London and that night King Henry VI was murdered at the Tower of London.

Richard (III) was given the task of bringing the north of the country under control. The conflicts between the Lancastrians and Yorkists over the previous few years had left the northern counties without any effective rulers resulting in lawlessness and unopposed Scottish raids. Richard was given the lands that the Earl of Warwick had previously possessed and he made his base at Middleham Castle.

The young Prince of Wales and his brother lived at Ludlow Castle.

Treaty of London between Edward IV of England and Charles the Bold of Burgundy against France.

The plans of King Edward IV to unseat the King of France led to his invasion of France with a force of 10,000 men. He had been promised assistance from the Dukes of Brittany and Burgundy, and the King of Aragon. Unfortunately the Burgundian army did not turn up due to another conflict and Edward was left without sufficient men to proceed.

Louis and Edward agreed to a peace treaty to last seven years. The agreement signed at the Treaty of Picquigny meant Louis was to pay Edward an initial sum to leave France and a smaller yearly sum there-after. The French also paid a ransom to free Margaret of Anjou who had been held by the English since the Battle of Tewkesbury.

Columbus was sailing on a small fleet of merchant ships from Genoa when they were attacked by pirates led by the pirate Coullon the Elder. The Genoese were able to protect themselves by trying to set fire to the pirates' ships. The ship the Columbus was on became attached to a pirate ship and both were set alight. Rather than being burnt to death many of the sailors jumped into the sea. Many died as they were weighed down with armour or simply because they could not swim. Columbus was able to swim and he found an oar onto which he clung. He was able to swim the six miles back to the Portugese shore.

King Edward IV bought Beaudesert Castle.

George Duke of Clarence was accused of being involved in a plot to kill Edward and the Prince of Wales by means of 'black magic'. He was taken to the Tower of London.

Clarence was found guilty of high treason and sentenced to death. The trial was attended by the King who took a big part in the procedures.

The Duke of Clarence was privately put to death within the walls of the Tower of London.

Work began on the castle guarding the Dartmouth harbour in Devon. A chain was employed that stretched across the entrance to prevent attacks.

Richard of Gloucester, assisted by the Duke of Buckingham rode to Stony Stratford where they met with the young Prince Edward under the pretence of offering their condolences for the death of his father. Instead, they captured Edward and took him directly to London and safe keeping in the Tower. Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers was arrested and imprisoned at Sherriff Hutton Castle, near York.

A three year truce was signed at Nottingham Castle by Richard and the Scottish king James III.

Richard was welcomed into London by the Mayor and a procession led him to Blackfriars. Christmas was spent celebrating.

The stone walls and towers of the Kremlin in Russia were raised for Ivan III. Two architects from Italy were invited to Moscow to oversea the work. They were Marco and Pietro Antonio.

Henry Tudor, the future king of England Henry VII, landed at Milford Haven in Wales avoiding the south coast which was more heavily defended and made his way north. He was given money by Charles VIII of France to pay for soldiers and ships for the invasion. His claim to the throne of England was through his mother whose great-grandfather was John of Gaunt, the son of King Edward III. He was accompanied by his uncle Japser Tudor.

King Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth and Henry Tudor was proclaimed King of England.

King Henry was confiscating the possessions of the House of York, and Lord Lovell, a Yorkist supporter, led a revolt in the north of England, but the rebellion was quickly put down. The rebellion took place while King Henry was touring the country.

Henry VII fought the Earl of Lincoln and Lambert Simnel at the Battle of Stoke. The English throne was at stake. Simnel was captured and Lincoln was killed. This battle ended the Wars of the Roses. The king realised Simnel was just a puppet in Lincoln's scheme and pardoned the young boy.

James III king of Scotland was killed at or shortly after the battle of Sauchieburn. Several of his nobles had risen up against the king and James was forced to fight. The king's army was defeated. James fled the battle field but was killed or even murdered shortly afterwards.

The Battle of St. Aubin was fought between the French and an English army commanded by Sir Edward Woodville, consisting also of a group of Bretons who had joined his company. It was in support of Brittany which was at war with France. The Bretons apparently abandoned the fight and the French soldiers killed Sir Edward and all his men, apart from one.

Benevolences is the term to describe the giving of money by the people to the Crown voluntarily when the country was in need of finance at times of war. Unfortunately several kings abused this making the payments compulsory, including King Richard III, and the practice was made illegal. King Henry VII overturned the ban and used Benevolences to raise money for a war with France.

The Tudor king Henry VII landed in Calais leading a large army against the French King Charles VIII. They captured the town of Boulogne.

Treaty of Etaples was the peace treaty signed by Charles VIII of France and Henry VII of England. Charles agreed not to support Perkin Warbeck and Henry agreed not pursue his claim to the French throne. Charles also had to pay Henry a large sum of money to be paid over several years.

Prince Henry, the future King of England, received his first official title before he was 2 years old. It was the Constable of Dover Castle.

Although less than two years old Prince Henry was given the title of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. The Cinque ports are five south coast ports (Hastings, Sandwich, Dover, New Romney and Hythe) that were to provide ships to assist keep the English Channel safe from enemy vessels. The last Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports was H.M. Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother.

Henry was given the title of Lieutenant of Ireland, but his duties were carried out by (Sir Edward Poynings ?)

Henry was also entered as a knight into the Order of the Bath and the Duke of York.

Henry (VIII) was given the title of Warden of the Scottish Marches and entered into the Order of the Garter.

In 1494 Charles VIII of France had taken an army into Italy to claim the throne of Naples which he believed was his right to have. As his army met no resistance he entered Naples and had himself crowned King.

At Venice it was decided to put a force together to remove King Charles of France from Italy. It was signed by the Pope, Ferdinand of Aragon, Maximilian the Holy Roman Emperor, the Ruler of Milan and also had the backing of Venice itself.

Perkin Warbeck and an invasion force of around 200 to 300 men approached England at Deal on the south coast. Warbeck did not get off his ship but his small army did. The local people did not accept Warbeck's claims to the English throne and turned on his army killing many and taking the remainder prisoner. The invasion had been financed by Maximilian, the Holy Roman Emporer. Warbeck then turned his attention to Ireland.

Perkin Warbeck arrived in Scotland near the end of November and was greeted by the Scottish king James IV. The King gave the pretender money and arranged a marriage to Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the earl of Huntley.

The Cornish rebels advanced as far as London. Henry VII had assembled a large army, much larger than the rebels own army and the two met in battle at Deptford Bridge (also know as the Battle of Blackheath). The rebels' army was no match for the King's troops and tactics and were heavily defeated.

One of the conditions of a seven-year peace treaty between England and the Scots had meant Perkin Warbeck had to leave Scotland. With a small army Warbeck landed on the south coast on England at Whitsand Bay, Cornwall. It was a favourable location as Cornwall was home to a good number of rebels.

Perkin Warbeck was hiding in Beaulieu Abbey where he was found by Henry VII's army and captured. He was taken to Taunton Castle where the king was staying. Warbck confessed that he was not Richard, the son of King Edward and that he had been used by others to try and remove Henry from the throne.

Perkin Warbeck executed at the Tower of London.